Leadership Behavioral Management in Cheerleading
This paper is a discussion of the relationship between leadership behavior and team cohesion among competitive cheerleading squads, particularly in Taiwan. Cheerleading can be traced back more than 100 years in America (Neil & Hart, 1986). In recent years, cheerleading has also become a popular sport in Taiwan. In the past, cheerleading squads were usually associates of sports teams, their general purpose being to motivate athletes for better performance. Today, some cheerleading teams are associated with athletic teams, but others, representing various organizations and institutions, test their cheerleading skills and performance in their own competitions. Effectively managing a cheerleading team for better competitive results is similar to effectively managing other sports teams. It requires such leadership skills as intrinsic motivation, communication, and building team cohesion. Beyond perfecting skills and motivating players, a good coach must be a teacher and a student at the same time. He or she must be aware of individual differences, must be a good listener, must set a good example, and must help with goal setting (Arnold & Jack, 2002).
Three main issues have influenced cheerleading’s development. First, cheerleading is a complicated sport, combining dance, cheers, partner stunts, and pyramid techniques. It is further complicated by relationships among the cheerleaders. When managing a squad, a cheerleading coach must understand these relationships and how they are likely to affect the squad in different situations. Chelladurai’s multidimensional model of leadership (Chelladurai, 1984; Chelladurai & Carron, 1978) has been employed in studies of various kinds of teams to explain athletes’ behavior in response to certain leadership qualities. The model could be adopted for cheerleading, where it would be useful in identifying individual members’ weaknesses.
Second, until approximately a decade ago there was little interest, in Taiwan, in cheerleading in primary or secondary schools or colleges. The limited scholarly and media attention that was granted to cheerleading in Taiwan focused on injuries. This was one reason why parents were not enthusiastic about their children pursuing the sport. To maintain interest in cheerleading, then, it is important to develop a cheerleading training program that is safe. Third and most important is that in cheerleading, injuries can affect both motivation and a team’s cohesion, and thus the number of injuries must be reduced.
Research has found that cheerleading is one of the sports that can cause injuries (Shields & Jacobs, 1986; Axe, Newcomb, & Warner, 1991; Hutchinson & Ireland, 1995; Rowe, Wright, Nyland, Caborn, & Kling, 1999; Luckstead & Patel, 2002). Because injury is a threat, it follows that cheerleading coaches should be educated in the techniques that prevent injuries from happening. The Taiwan Cheerleading Association has hosted several conferences emphasizing the importance of safety and promoting regulation of the sport of cheerleading in Taiwan. The association was established to promote the development of cheerleading by familiarizing coaches and teachers of cheerleading with movement analyses and other crucial strategies and advocating their on-the-job training. The association’s safety conferences were intended to increase understanding about safety matters, thereby decreasing the number of injuries sustained during training and performance.
The essence of this research was the study of leadership behavior in cheerleading. George and Feltz (1995) indicated that collective efficacy and team cohesion are the two most important mental factors in team performance. Success in cheerleading performance thus rests on the effectiveness of team cohesion. Greater team cohesion may improve athletes’ performance and help them achieve their goals (Martens & Peterson, 1971). Hwang (1986) furthermore suggested four principles of team cohesion. First, without team cohesion, no group exists. Second, team cohesion results from communication, focus, and ability. Third, team members’ satisfaction with their team on social terms can be enhanced, increasing team cohesion. Fourth, team cohesion does not guarantee competitive success.
Enhancing Cohesion of Cheerleading Teams
In his multidimensional model of sport leadership, Chelladurai (1984) explained that leadership behavior is affected by three traits: a situational trait, a leadership trait, and a team member trait. To be successful, a leader—the coach—of a cheerleading team will be flexible when dealing with a team member whose traits may be complex and may furthermore vary with the situation. Distinct situations call for distinct coaching strategies to motivate cheerleaders to perform at their peak during competitions. Always, communication with each team member will be key. While the members of a team ideally would work together to create team cohesion, the team environment should comprise a comfortable setting in which members are inspired to work together. Such a setting relies heavily on the leader’s evenhanded application of team rules. Both leader and team members derive a sense of satisfaction from such a setting.
The leadership traits of the cheerleading coach play a key role in influencing team performance (Westre & Weiss, 1991). The coach’s primary mission is leading the team toward the goal that has been set by coach and team together. Both coach and team members should communicate actively during the process of setting goals. Chelladurai’s model espouses the leadership traits of being demanding, likeable, and practical (Chelladurai, 1984). The leader’s behavior can exert social influence guiding goal setting, socialization, and team work.
Locke and Latham (1990) developed a theoretical framework for goal setting. In the case of cheerleading, their framework calls for the leader to guide cheerleaders in learning technical skills requisite to achieving some goal, at the same time encouraging the team to have a further, higher goal. For instance, a primary-school cheerleader should learn a simple cartwheel (the goal) preparatory to conquering another, more difficult move (the further goal). Goals must be specific and reachable within a stated time frame. The whole team should agree on its goals, so that self-efficacy and self-confidence can be developed teamwide.
The coach’s leadership makes him or her a role model for the cheerleading team members. When a coach’s leadership ability is outstanding, that coach is often emulated by team members, who respect and appreciate their leader’s experiences and capability, follow his or her directions and advice, and work with the leader toward achievement of goals.
Since individuals’ characteristics stem from their unique backgrounds and life experiences, every cheerleader has unique reasons for participating in cheerleading. This helps explain why the coach’s most difficult challenge is to bring the group of individuals together to work as a team. There are strategies, however, for providing the most effective leadership possible to the cheerleading team, as follows:
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Create team confidence.
Focus on developing individual cheerleading efficacy, which results in individual and team confidence. Developing each cheerleader as an individual is challenging yet realistic approach to team success, and team success is undoubtedly an effective way to manage team confidence. Short and Sullivan (2003) specify practical steps to help a team build, maintain, and, when necessary, regain confidence.
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Utilize an effective training plan.
The success of some U.S. cheerleading teams is grounded in, they claim (Anonymous, 2005), the simple philosophy of an ongoing, month after month, training schedule. Performance outcomes certainly should be affected by training schedules that can accommodate a full slate of teaching and coaching, which stimulates and strengthens the team members’ motivation (Brophy & Good, 1986). In addition, the cheerleading coach who practices effective leadership will prepare cheerleaders with psychological skills for enduring the complexity of training. Thus cheerleading coaches require intuitive experience on two levels, the physical and the psychological. In any sport, it is essential that a team leader benefit from previous experience, whether failure or success. The leader must assimilate principles of leadership based on these experiences in order to provide the best plan of evaluating performance and providing feedback to athletes.
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Utilize various methodologies.
Mental imagery techniques are beneficial for dance movements, gymnastic techniques, and team stunts. Videotaping team performances can help in analyzing cheerleader movements. Good communication allows the coach and cheerleaders to discuss openly the desired outcomes and just what will achieve them; only then can cheerleaders correct and perfect their movements.
While individual differences sometimes impede the building of a cheerleading team and team cohesion, they can be overcome with these and other proper leadership strategies and methodologies.
References
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